Regional Imbalance/Regional Disparities

• Balanced growth means growth equilibrium in different sectors of the economy. It means all sectors of economy will expand in same proportion so that consumption, investment, & income will in same rate. It means the growth rate of consumption, investment & income should be equal.
• Balance growth is a dynamic process which include sustainable growth where the supply & demand are in equilibrium and growth in every kind of capital stock.
• According to R. F. Harrod, balance growth is a condition where wweight of income, output & natural resources are equal. It is express as:   G_y = G_w = G_n or G_y = G_o = G_r . If the 3 variables are balanced, the country or nation has balance growth pattern.
• Regional Disparity is a spatial analysis of the growth pattern or the economic development. Certain areal units have higher growth propensity because of geographical advantages & inertia, while certain regions lacks such advantages. Thus ,they remain economically depressed & growth impulse are emancipated.
• Regional Imbalance is the effect of variations in growth impulses over the space. It is an important geographical search, as to why certain regions have higher growth rate while others have not? Regional imbalance the differential economic force existing in a region. Certain regions have polarisation of economic factors while some regions have economic deprivation.

Factors Behind Regional Imbalance

1. Physical Factors
   • Natural resource endowment
   • climate
   • Soil & the soil fertility
   • Hydrology
   • Accessibility
   • Location
   • Altitude
2. The non-physical
   • Historical Factors
   • social factors
   • political factors
   • Dynamic factors
   • Technological factors
   • demographic factors
   • Economic factors

Theories of Regional Imbalance

1. Core-periphery model(Boundaries & Frontiers)
   • According to John R. Friedman, the core is always develops at the cost of periphery region due to centripetal force & the tendency of economic factors to centralise.
   • Core has the highest magnitude & intensity of phenomena while peripheral parts have more centrifugal tendency. Over landscape, initially, there are nucleus of growth which develop into the core and deprives the surrounding. Thus, regional disparity are bound to come.
   • It is a naturalistic theory of economic growth & regional disparity.
2. Cumulative-Causation theory(by Gunnar Myrdal)
   • According to theory, regional disparity or imbalance is merely a stage in the process of equilibrium growth. 
   • In this theory, it was argued that contrary to the classical theory, economic market forces increases regional difeerences rather than decreasing them.
   • Stage I(Cumulative-Causation Stage)
   • • Economic development takes place in a region initially because of natural advantages that it offers. Then, once such region moves ahead of others, a process of cumulative causation takes place as acquired advantages are developed to reinforce the status of the region.
     • Myrdal identified two associated processes which caused unequal growth:
     • 1. Cumulative Causation
       2. Backwash effect
   • Stage II(The Backwash Effect)
   • • A process of spatial interaction takes place as labour, capital & commodities move into growing region.
     • Such growth produces a backwash effect in that other regions and they lose skilled labour and capital to grow region and their markets are flooded with goods, preventing local development.
   • Stage III(The Spread-Out Effect)
   • • The benefits percolate or trickle down, especially the capital investment, diffusion of investment, the dissimulation of ideas & the reverse spatial interaction.
     • Thus, the regional disparity are temporary and ultimately leads to the balanced regional growth.

Regional Disparities across the world

1. North-South Divide
   • North: Former colonial powers, imperialist countries, technologically equipped, commercial economies, exporter of the final products, they control 3/4th of the world trade.
   • South: formal colonies, exporter of the raw materials, technologically deficient.

Region

• It is a distinctive unit or area based on the interaction of small spatial & ecological system over the space. It has particular characteristics such as physical condition or economic organisations which affects the spatial relationship that man has with the space.
• Region refers to a unit of space where homogeneity increases inwards & heterogeneity across the boundary.  A region is a segment of a landscape presenting a coherent picture of a set of attributes. eg. Savana region has unique vegetation which presents that coherent picture. Thus region have uniqueness & distinctiveness from the surroundings.
• A region can be defined as a homogeneous area where a set of criteria applies.
• Regionalisation is the process of delineating surface of earth but each time guided by a purpose. Thus regions have purpose or goal.
• Regionalisation deals with the differentiation of political measure in space. If such political regionalisation coincides with physical homogeneity, it becomes a unit of regional planning.
• Regions have transitional boundaries because the phenomena continues to exist, but may not be with the same magnitude.
• Regions are mental construct & they are anthropogenic because nature doesn't have classification, and regionalisation is an achedmic endeavour to reduce the complexity of the phenomena.
• Region is distinct from area. Area is merely a space unit while region is area+phenomena. Phenomena is an event of a thing by itself.
• Region and space are also distinct because space is framework where phenomena exist.

Classification of Region

(i)Formal Based on uniformity given by a particular region

(ii)Functional It has defined core that retain a specific characteristic that diminishes outwards.

(iii)Programming Which is designed to serve a particular purpose.

Formal Region

• They are non-dynamic & subjective regions where the criteria taken are abstract. eg. cultural region.
• Such regions have transitional boundary and they are perception based. eg. Malyalam cultural region, Bengali cultural region(criteria is language, lifestyle, etc.)
• Linguistic regions are formal regions. Geographical region or paleo-geographical region is also formal region.

Functional Region

• They are objective regions; criteria is quantitative. They have flow pattern. They are dynamic. Boundaries are not fixed but they have linear boundary.
• Industrial regions are functional region. Metropolitian region, city region, administrative region are also functional region.

The methods for Delimitation of Boundary

1.  Mono-variable Method/Single Index Method
   • It is used for demarcation of formal region.
   • It is uses a single creatia for differentiation of two units of the landscape. eg. for demarcation of backward region, per capita income can be taken as criteria.
   • If Y_a – Y_b = 0, regionalisation or demarcation of region can't take place. Here, a & b are subunits and Y is per capita income.
   • But if Y_a – Y_b = k, is a fixed criteria adopted by policy maker. But it can only provide with the transitional boundary.
2. The Flow Analysis
   • It is used for demarcation of the functional region. eg. Industrial region.
   • The inflow of raw material, labour, capital and outflow of products can be demarcated on the basis of transportation lines & all the port lines are joined by vertical lines. Thus, it gives the star diagram.

Problems in Demarcation

1. Definition of regional boundaries
   • Physical features does not change abruptly as the lines on map.
2. Scale
   • Depending upon the criteria used,  there are thousands of regions that can be defined, ranging from the environmental region to region served by a single shop.

Demarcation of city regions or Denoted regions

1. Qualitative Methods
   1. R. L. Singh's Method
   2. UN method
   3. Skyline Method
2. Quantitative Method
   1. Gravity Model
   2. Break point Model
   3. Law of retail gravitation

 

Boundaries & Frontiers

Frontier	Boundary
1. Historical Concept	1. Modern Contemporary
2. Natural	2. Mostly Anthropogenic
3. Areal Concept	3. Linear Concept
4. Outer Orientation	4. Inner orientation It means across the boundary the forces are absent like economic forces, political forces, and inside the boundary such forces has higher intensity & magnitude.
5. Frontier Signifies centrifugal forces. It means the politico-cultural realm can further extend into the frontier.	5. Boundaries are confinement, signifying the centripetal forces.
6. Frontiers have no political dispute.	6. Boundaries are vary often disputable by the rival nations.
7. Frontier generally have mountainous area, desert, marshes, etc. Thus, inhabitable.	7. But boundaries have no such criteria.
8. Frontiers are dynamic.	8. Boundaries are static because once fixed,they hardly change.

Theories on Boundaries and Frontiers

1. Core Periphery Model(by Friedmann)
   • He suggested that the cultural, political & socio-economic phenomena have tendency to centralise at the core. Thus, core is always highly developed and periphery part remains sparse.
   • Thus, core area develop into cultural region, or political region or nationality and the periphery region become frontier because of such core.
2. Organismic Theory
   • It is based on Social Darwinism, which considers state as an organism and territory as an the living space.
   • This theory was proposed by Hashoufer and he considered boundary as dynamic, which must grow for the growth of the state.
3. British Imperialist Theory
   • This theory assumes boundaries to be fixed but the colonial boundaries can be extended. 
   • Thus, it demarcated the political sovereign boundary with the imperialist boundaries.
4. Contractual Theory
   • Most of the recent political boundaries has been demarcated by contracts, agreement, treaties,or bilateral agreements.
   • Thus, boundary is political & man made. There are 3 methods for such boundary:
   • 1. Arbitration
        • By 3rd party intervention
     2. Arbitrary
        • eg. In the deserts or in the frontiers where there are no dispute, such boundary are straight line.
     3. Contractual
        • either by bilateral or multilateral agreement or through UN or any other means.

Types of Boundaries

• Genetic Classification of the boundaries
• 1. Antecedent Boundaries
     • The boundaries that has been drawn before the cultural-political realm.
     • Such boundaries were non-contentious. 
     • eg. N. Africa, the state boundaries of USA.
  2. The Subsequent Boundaries
     • When the cultural realm are fully developed & political boundaries are contentious.
     • Such boundaries are irregular or amorphic boundaries.
     • eg. the countries of Europe
  3. Superimposed Boundaries
     • When a political boundary divides a homogenous cultural region and across the boundary the people with similar ethnicity are found.
     • eg. Pok
  4. Relict Boundaries
     • Historical boundaries which only exists in the books
     • eg. Persia, the boundary between east & west Germany.
• Geometrical Division
• 1. Linear: 
  2. Latitudinal: eg. US & Canada
  3. Longitudinal: eg. Alaska & Canada, Eastern & western USA
  4. Arced/Curved: Boundary in Libya, Sudan & Algeria
• Based on the Nature of the Boundary
• 1. Physiographic 

Regionalism and Regional Consciousness

• Nationalism is not a political theory but merely a sentiment of togetherness, communion, historic connection or a common ethnic conciousness. It is a unit formed by a sense of common defense or aspiration to present themselves in international arena or the desire to emerge as an economic & political power to establish hegemony or a religious sentiment.
• Regional Conciousness on the other hand is awareness or knowledge where people identify themselves with a geographical area, either on the basis of language or same ethnicity. Regional Conciousness leads to regionalism where regionalism is the personification of a group or community with land.
• Regionalism is either based on the ethnic conciousness or strive for economic growth or aspiration for cultural identity existing between the national tide.Regionalism is not antithetical to nationalism rather it contributes in the growth of nation as it highlights the regional problems through their demands which further helps in national integration.
• In the Indian context, regional disparity - interstate or intrastate - is the sole casue behind regional conciousness. Through meeting the regional demand, greater nationalism can be made.
• The interstate dispute are the other factor behind regional conciousness:
• • Boundary related(Maharashtra & karnataka; Punjab & Haryana)
  • River water dispute
  • Inter-linking of river dispute
  • Taxation dispute
  • Dispute over capital
  • Migration related dispute
  • Power sharing dispute
  • Mineral exploitation

Geographical Basis of Indian Federalism

• According to Livingstone, geographical federalism emanates when the centrifugal forces & the centripetal  forces within a country are in perfect balance. If the centripetal forces are greater, unitary form of govt. and if centrifugal forces are more, confederation is the consequence.
• Geographical federation means the inherent & genetic causes - the physiographic, socio-cultural, economic forces - and processes creating the balance between the unifying and diversifying forces. Thus, geographical federalism  is the expression of Unity in Diversity.
• Political federalism is superimposed by statutary provisions. Thus, it has top to bottom flow, but, geographical federalism has bottom to top flow and such federal structure is everlasting
• Political federalism has 4 criteria:
• 1. Suprimacy of constitution.
  2. Written constitution
  3. Independent Judiciary
  4. Division/sepration of power

The basis of Geographical Federalism in India

Centripetal Forces	Centrifugal Forces
1. The Sub-continental design	1. But the sub-continent has plateau, plain, desert, coastal ring, mountains, etc.
2. Monsoon rhythm. It not only influences the cropping pattern but also sets the cultural rhythm & festivity in India.	2. But the variability in rainfall makes the distinction in the cropping pattern & the output. Thus cultural diversity also grows.
3. Sanskrit as a language commands and is respected among all the languages in India.	India has 22 constitutional languages and thousand of dialects.
4. There is a single racial type called Indian-type or Brown race.	4. But India has 6 major races and it is called "Melting pot of races"
5. Indian Constitution is very power binding force of the country.	5. Division of power, separation of power in states
6. Nationalism has a long history in India. The Magadh empire, Ashoka- the great, Akhbar, marathas and the British Empire. The national movement against British Empire.	6. Regionalism, linguistic division of states, sub-nationalism, communism, etc.

Emergence of New States

• The geographical criteria:
• 1. Physiographic distinction
  2. Ethnic homogeneity/ Cultural basis
  3. History of Demand
  4. Economic Backwardness
  5. The Resource base
  6. Linguistic base
• For the formation of new state, following viability are considered:
• 1. Economic viability
  2. Admistrative viability
  3. Ecological Viability
  4. Political viability
  5. Cultural viability
  6. Linguistic viability

Case Study - Jharkand, Uttrakhand, Chattisgarh

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Social Capital

• Social capital is neither material capital nor human capital. Thus neither refers to natural resources or human resources.
• The concept of social capital developed in USA in the 19th century. It refers to the social interaction & the social intercourse among people. It was developed by L. J. Hanifer and later on explained by Robert D. Putname. It refers to the collective of economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment & cooperation between the individuals and groups. It is based on the principle that social networks have value.
• Hanifer stated that social capital is the means to achieve the material & the tangible substances necessary for our development through goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy, & social intercourse among a group of individual who make up a social unit.
• Social capital is formed by the networking & the social cohesiveness or interaction with people working in various affairs.

Case Study of Italy

• In Italy, Northern & southern region both developed industries, but southern region had lesser growth rate than northern region because it lacked social capital. Here, social capital means awareness & conciousness of being a part of the social unit & demanding growth. Thus the current economic development are also questions of social awareness, interaction & social co-mingling.

Geo-Political Theories

Heartland Theory

• A geopolitical theory which deals with special relationship among various powers & seeks to understand the contemporary geo-politics with reference to history.
• It is a deterministic & predictable model based on Admiral Mahan's Principle that there is historical conflict between the land power and the sea power. However, Maikinder was opposed to the view of Mahan that sea power is more coercive than land power because Maikender based his theory on the medivial history where Mongol's horse power ruled the world.
• In 1904, Maikinder published a book called "Geographical Pivot of History" which has the proposition of Heartland Theory. He divided the world in a 3-tier system.
• 1. Pivot Area 
     • bounded by Ural in the west, Siberia highlands in the east, Central highland in the south and Arctic ice shell in the North. Thus pivot area is a natural fortress, inaccessible & thus invincible. 
     • It has central location to the known world & Mongols could never enter this zone. They invaded the coastal rims.
     • Moreover, the region has enormous natural resources, which is essential for the growth of the a politico-economic power.
  2. The Marginal Crescent
     • It is the coastal rim including Europe, West-Asia, South-Asia & China.
     • Due to easy accessibility, the land has been invaded constantly and their history has many fluctuation and ifs & flows.
     • It symbolise coastal countries as the sea power.
  3. The Outer Crescent
     • It included the new world, the Africa and the South of Sahara.
     • The outer crescent had no role in the world geopolitics. 
• He also developed the idea of World Island. The world islands included Eurasia & Africa. The whole world geopolitics is centered in world island.
• 
• In 1909 he published another article, "Democratic idea & reality" where the theory of the Heartland unrevealed. Heartland was a modified form of Pivot Area. 
• Maikinder was overwhelm by the development of the world politics in the last decade. Bolshevik Revoution in 1917 culminated into emergence of USSR as power centre in Europe. Another event of defeat of Germany also propelled him to believe that the heartland has emerged as the new superpower. And thirdly, the construction of trans-syberian railways & greater control of Russia over the syberian resources encouraged him to go further with his geopolitical theory.
• He presented some sensilating political quotations:
• 1. Geographical Causation of History
     • It means history is product of geographical forces operating in time & space.
     • Pulsation in history is caused by climate.
  2. Geography is a coercive force which determines the evolution of geopolitics.
     • eg. accessibility, resource availability, climate and race of people determines the centralisation of political power.
  3. There is a historical conflict between the land power & sea power
     • Where land power is superior because it has easier access to the coastal countries.
• In 1919 he divided the world into a 3 tier system with certain amendments:
• • Tier-I(The Heartland)
  • • Western boundary is Volga basin.
    • Himalaya & Turkish-Iranian mountains in the south.
  • Tier-II(The Marginal Crescent)
  • • Which included Europe, entire Africa & South-Asia, SW Asia, SE Asia but he kept UK and Japan in the outer Crescent.
  • Tier-III(The Outer Crescent)
  • • It included the the continents of N. America, S. America and Australia.
  
• He gave the famous quotation, "Who commands Eastern Europe, rules the Heartland. Who commands the Heartland, rules the world island. Who commands the world islands, rules the world". Thus, heartland is the core area where economic & political forces will centralise and it will evolve as a superpower. heartland has inaccessibility, natural fortification & enormous resources.
• In 1944 before his death he published another article "Round the world & wining of the peace", which published in the foreign affairs.
• The outcome of the 2nd WW was emergence of USA as superpower. Maikinder was quick to revise his Heartland theory. He suggested that there are two superior power: (a)Heartland and (b)The Midland Basin, which consist of New England region(USA) separated by Atlantic which is not a barrier rather a facilitator of trade & strategic relationship.
• The two units have only geopolitical separation but they are similar race with analogous economic & political aspiration and they jointly tends to establish political hegemony in the world. The physiographic, climatic, racial and historical similarity combines them in a united force.

Application of the Heartland Theory

• Pre-WWII
• 1. Emergence of Russian Federation after Bolsheviks revolution.
  2. The Siberian railways & growing control of Russia over resources.
  3. The defeat of Germany at the hand of Russia during WWII.
• The Cold-War period
• 1. He predicted the two superpower and the eastern Europe became bone of contention.
  2. The Cuban missile crisis and the stalemate situation between the 2 superpower.
  3. 1971 Indo-Pak war, USA sends its ships to the Bay of Bangal and Russia sends its ships to Arabian sea.
• Post Cold-War period
• 1. Russian Fedration was dismental and Russia ceased to be an economic power. But their military capability are still superior & it acts as a strategic pole or power centre.
  2. With formation of Shanghai Corporation, Russia is trying to exert its economic & strategic position.
  3. Formation of BRICS bank.
  4. Annexation of Crimea by Russia.
  5. National Missile Defence(NMD) by USA. It manifest the perceived threat from Russia.

Criticism of Heartland Theory

1. Biased view
   • His view was biased because of imperial British interests were central focus of his theory.
2. Overlooked Heartland’s physical and climatological difficulties
   • Heartland is a region of permanent  problems owing to it’s interior location and extremes of climate. He overlooked Man-nature relation.
3. Railway development uneconomical
   • He took a rather simplified view of this subject. In an arid region with sparsely settled Heartland region, which has limited agricultural and mineral base a railway project would be uneconomical.
4. Era of air travel destroys Heartlands invincibility
   • He failed to see that railway era was drawing to an end and that the era of air travel has already began. Example:- German air raids on the cities of USSR during the World War proved his theory wrong.
5. Miscalculation regarding power potential and area
   • He wrongly equated power potential with sheer geographical area, a factor which made him to inflate the resources and power of the inner Heartland.
6. Old data for pivot area concept
   • His pivot area concept came in 1904. His thesis was based don the data available prior to 1904. At that time Russia occupied barely any important place in the world map of politics. This was an inherent weakness in his thesis.
7. Oversimplification of the land and sea power
   • He oversimplified the complex relationship of history rather in a deterministic fashion s a struggle between land and sea power.
8. Science has made surface transportation configuration of earth insignificant
   • Science and technology development has made a global distribution of land and sea insignificant as ballistic missile with nuclear warheads can be fired from any point of the earth’s surface. Example: Inter-continental ballistic missile.
9. Policy of nuclear deterrence by the Western Bloc to counterbalance heartland
   • A nuclear arsanel in the hands of west will deter USSR inspite of it’s advantages to spread communism throughout by controlling the world unchecked. This was probably why USA dropped 2 atom bombs on Japan. However, an arms race was triggered off by this act between the 2 blocs.

Rimland Theory

• Rimland theory is an antithesis to the heartland theory. However, based on the similar premises, it is a critical view on Maikinder than  independent theory.
• It was represented by Spykman in 1943. The theory says that their is power conflict between Land & sea power. It also accepts the 3-tier division of Maikinder, but rejects the idea that land power is superior to sea power.
• It quoted the European history in the post Columbian era when the Europe virtually ruled the whole world.
• The theory suggest that the heartland is a misery & perennial agony because it is inaccessible, resources are dormant, climatic hazards are too great and terrain is difficult. Moreover, the best of all the resources, the human resource, is absent.
• The Marginal Crescent was termed as the Rimland, symbolising the sea power. The sea power has faster movement & mass transportation. Therefore, it is invincible. And strategically the coastal location, indentation, ports are natural advantage to a country.
• He further said, 2/3rd of the world population live in the Rimland area and it has all the vital resources like petroleum, coal, forest resources and human resource. Thus, Rimland is far superior spatial unit than the heartland.
• The famous quotation, "Who controls the Rimland, rules Eurasia. Who rules Eurasia, controls destinies of the world".

Criticism of Rimland Theory

1. Neither Heartland nor Rimland theory has modern application because they neglects:
   1. Air Power
   2. Ballistic missiles
   3. Nuclear warfare
2. Rimland theory was prominent during the cold war when Russia was trying to extend its hegemony over Rimland countries.
3. The domino theory which suggested the USSR trying to extend its communism in the peripheral parts.
4. Finlandisation, Russia establishing proxy govt. and influencing the policy making in Rimland area.
5. These theories are more of historical analysis and they can't be applied in-to-to.