Regional Imbalance/Regional Disparities

• Balanced growth means growth equilibrium in different sectors of the economy. It means all sectors of economy will expand in same proportion so that consumption, investment, & income will in same rate. It means the growth rate of consumption, investment & income should be equal.
• Balance growth is a dynamic process which include sustainable growth where the supply & demand are in equilibrium and growth in every kind of capital stock.
• According to R. F. Harrod, balance growth is a condition where wweight of income, output & natural resources are equal. It is express as:   G_y = G_w = G_n or G_y = G_o = G_r . If the 3 variables are balanced, the country or nation has balance growth pattern.
• Regional Disparity is a spatial analysis of the growth pattern or the economic development. Certain areal units have higher growth propensity because of geographical advantages & inertia, while certain regions lacks such advantages. Thus ,they remain economically depressed & growth impulse are emancipated.
• Regional Imbalance is the effect of variations in growth impulses over the space. It is an important geographical search, as to why certain regions have higher growth rate while others have not? Regional imbalance the differential economic force existing in a region. Certain regions have polarisation of economic factors while some regions have economic deprivation.

Factors Behind Regional Imbalance

1. Physical Factors
   • Natural resource endowment
   • climate
   • Soil & the soil fertility
   • Hydrology
   • Accessibility
   • Location
   • Altitude
2. The non-physical
   • Historical Factors
   • social factors
   • political factors
   • Dynamic factors
   • Technological factors
   • demographic factors
   • Economic factors

Theories of Regional Imbalance

1. Core-periphery model(Boundaries & Frontiers)
   • According to John R. Friedman, the core is always develops at the cost of periphery region due to centripetal force & the tendency of economic factors to centralise.
   • Core has the highest magnitude & intensity of phenomena while peripheral parts have more centrifugal tendency. Over landscape, initially, there are nucleus of growth which develop into the core and deprives the surrounding. Thus, regional disparity are bound to come.
   • It is a naturalistic theory of economic growth & regional disparity.
2. Cumulative-Causation theory(by Gunnar Myrdal)
   • According to theory, regional disparity or imbalance is merely a stage in the process of equilibrium growth. 
   • In this theory, it was argued that contrary to the classical theory, economic market forces increases regional difeerences rather than decreasing them.
   • Stage I(Cumulative-Causation Stage)
   • • Economic development takes place in a region initially because of natural advantages that it offers. Then, once such region moves ahead of others, a process of cumulative causation takes place as acquired advantages are developed to reinforce the status of the region.
     • Myrdal identified two associated processes which caused unequal growth:
     • 1. Cumulative Causation
       2. Backwash effect
   • Stage II(The Backwash Effect)
   • • A process of spatial interaction takes place as labour, capital & commodities move into growing region.
     • Such growth produces a backwash effect in that other regions and they lose skilled labour and capital to grow region and their markets are flooded with goods, preventing local development.
   • Stage III(The Spread-Out Effect)
   • • The benefits percolate or trickle down, especially the capital investment, diffusion of investment, the dissimulation of ideas & the reverse spatial interaction.
     • Thus, the regional disparity are temporary and ultimately leads to the balanced regional growth.

Regional Disparities across the world

1. North-South Divide
   • North: Former colonial powers, imperialist countries, technologically equipped, commercial economies, exporter of the final products, they control 3/4th of the world trade.
   • South: formal colonies, exporter of the raw materials, technologically deficient.

Region

• It is a distinctive unit or area based on the interaction of small spatial & ecological system over the space. It has particular characteristics such as physical condition or economic organisations which affects the spatial relationship that man has with the space.
• Region refers to a unit of space where homogeneity increases inwards & heterogeneity across the boundary.  A region is a segment of a landscape presenting a coherent picture of a set of attributes. eg. Savana region has unique vegetation which presents that coherent picture. Thus region have uniqueness & distinctiveness from the surroundings.
• A region can be defined as a homogeneous area where a set of criteria applies.
• Regionalisation is the process of delineating surface of earth but each time guided by a purpose. Thus regions have purpose or goal.
• Regionalisation deals with the differentiation of political measure in space. If such political regionalisation coincides with physical homogeneity, it becomes a unit of regional planning.
• Regions have transitional boundaries because the phenomena continues to exist, but may not be with the same magnitude.
• Regions are mental construct & they are anthropogenic because nature doesn't have classification, and regionalisation is an achedmic endeavour to reduce the complexity of the phenomena.
• Region is distinct from area. Area is merely a space unit while region is area+phenomena. Phenomena is an event of a thing by itself.
• Region and space are also distinct because space is framework where phenomena exist.

Classification of Region

(i)Formal Based on uniformity given by a particular region

(ii)Functional It has defined core that retain a specific characteristic that diminishes outwards.

(iii)Programming Which is designed to serve a particular purpose.

Formal Region

• They are non-dynamic & subjective regions where the criteria taken are abstract. eg. cultural region.
• Such regions have transitional boundary and they are perception based. eg. Malyalam cultural region, Bengali cultural region(criteria is language, lifestyle, etc.)
• Linguistic regions are formal regions. Geographical region or paleo-geographical region is also formal region.

Functional Region

• They are objective regions; criteria is quantitative. They have flow pattern. They are dynamic. Boundaries are not fixed but they have linear boundary.
• Industrial regions are functional region. Metropolitian region, city region, administrative region are also functional region.

The methods for Delimitation of Boundary

1.  Mono-variable Method/Single Index Method
   • It is used for demarcation of formal region.
   • It is uses a single creatia for differentiation of two units of the landscape. eg. for demarcation of backward region, per capita income can be taken as criteria.
   • If Y_a – Y_b = 0, regionalisation or demarcation of region can't take place. Here, a & b are subunits and Y is per capita income.
   • But if Y_a – Y_b = k, is a fixed criteria adopted by policy maker. But it can only provide with the transitional boundary.
2. The Flow Analysis
   • It is used for demarcation of the functional region. eg. Industrial region.
   • The inflow of raw material, labour, capital and outflow of products can be demarcated on the basis of transportation lines & all the port lines are joined by vertical lines. Thus, it gives the star diagram.

Problems in Demarcation

1. Definition of regional boundaries
   • Physical features does not change abruptly as the lines on map.
2. Scale
   • Depending upon the criteria used,  there are thousands of regions that can be defined, ranging from the environmental region to region served by a single shop.

Demarcation of city regions or Denoted regions

1. Qualitative Methods
   1. R. L. Singh's Method
   2. UN method
   3. Skyline Method
2. Quantitative Method
   1. Gravity Model
   2. Break point Model
   3. Law of retail gravitation

 

Boundaries & Frontiers

Frontier	Boundary
1. Historical Concept	1. Modern Contemporary
2. Natural	2. Mostly Anthropogenic
3. Areal Concept	3. Linear Concept
4. Outer Orientation	4. Inner orientation It means across the boundary the forces are absent like economic forces, political forces, and inside the boundary such forces has higher intensity & magnitude.
5. Frontier Signifies centrifugal forces. It means the politico-cultural realm can further extend into the frontier.	5. Boundaries are confinement, signifying the centripetal forces.
6. Frontiers have no political dispute.	6. Boundaries are vary often disputable by the rival nations.
7. Frontier generally have mountainous area, desert, marshes, etc. Thus, inhabitable.	7. But boundaries have no such criteria.
8. Frontiers are dynamic.	8. Boundaries are static because once fixed,they hardly change.

Theories on Boundaries and Frontiers

1. Core Periphery Model(by Friedmann)
   • He suggested that the cultural, political & socio-economic phenomena have tendency to centralise at the core. Thus, core is always highly developed and periphery part remains sparse.
   • Thus, core area develop into cultural region, or political region or nationality and the periphery region become frontier because of such core.
2. Organismic Theory
   • It is based on Social Darwinism, which considers state as an organism and territory as an the living space.
   • This theory was proposed by Hashoufer and he considered boundary as dynamic, which must grow for the growth of the state.
3. British Imperialist Theory
   • This theory assumes boundaries to be fixed but the colonial boundaries can be extended. 
   • Thus, it demarcated the political sovereign boundary with the imperialist boundaries.
4. Contractual Theory
   • Most of the recent political boundaries has been demarcated by contracts, agreement, treaties,or bilateral agreements.
   • Thus, boundary is political & man made. There are 3 methods for such boundary:
   • 1. Arbitration
        • By 3rd party intervention
     2. Arbitrary
        • eg. In the deserts or in the frontiers where there are no dispute, such boundary are straight line.
     3. Contractual
        • either by bilateral or multilateral agreement or through UN or any other means.

Types of Boundaries

• Genetic Classification of the boundaries
• 1. Antecedent Boundaries
     • The boundaries that has been drawn before the cultural-political realm.
     • Such boundaries were non-contentious. 
     • eg. N. Africa, the state boundaries of USA.
  2. The Subsequent Boundaries
     • When the cultural realm are fully developed & political boundaries are contentious.
     • Such boundaries are irregular or amorphic boundaries.
     • eg. the countries of Europe
  3. Superimposed Boundaries
     • When a political boundary divides a homogenous cultural region and across the boundary the people with similar ethnicity are found.
     • eg. Pok
  4. Relict Boundaries
     • Historical boundaries which only exists in the books
     • eg. Persia, the boundary between east & west Germany.
• Geometrical Division
• 1. Linear: 
  2. Latitudinal: eg. US & Canada
  3. Longitudinal: eg. Alaska & Canada, Eastern & western USA
  4. Arced/Curved: Boundary in Libya, Sudan & Algeria
• Based on the Nature of the Boundary
• 1. Physiographic 

Regionalism and Regional Consciousness

• Nationalism is not a political theory but merely a sentiment of togetherness, communion, historic connection or a common ethnic conciousness. It is a unit formed by a sense of common defense or aspiration to present themselves in international arena or the desire to emerge as an economic & political power to establish hegemony or a religious sentiment.
• Regional Conciousness on the other hand is awareness or knowledge where people identify themselves with a geographical area, either on the basis of language or same ethnicity. Regional Conciousness leads to regionalism where regionalism is the personification of a group or community with land.
• Regionalism is either based on the ethnic conciousness or strive for economic growth or aspiration for cultural identity existing between the national tide.Regionalism is not antithetical to nationalism rather it contributes in the growth of nation as it highlights the regional problems through their demands which further helps in national integration.
• In the Indian context, regional disparity - interstate or intrastate - is the sole casue behind regional conciousness. Through meeting the regional demand, greater nationalism can be made.
• The interstate dispute are the other factor behind regional conciousness:
• • Boundary related(Maharashtra & karnataka; Punjab & Haryana)
  • River water dispute
  • Inter-linking of river dispute
  • Taxation dispute
  • Dispute over capital
  • Migration related dispute
  • Power sharing dispute
  • Mineral exploitation

Geographical Basis of Indian Federalism

• According to Livingstone, geographical federalism emanates when the centrifugal forces & the centripetal  forces within a country are in perfect balance. If the centripetal forces are greater, unitary form of govt. and if centrifugal forces are more, confederation is the consequence.
• Geographical federation means the inherent & genetic causes - the physiographic, socio-cultural, economic forces - and processes creating the balance between the unifying and diversifying forces. Thus, geographical federalism  is the expression of Unity in Diversity.
• Political federalism is superimposed by statutary provisions. Thus, it has top to bottom flow, but, geographical federalism has bottom to top flow and such federal structure is everlasting
• Political federalism has 4 criteria:
• 1. Suprimacy of constitution.
  2. Written constitution
  3. Independent Judiciary
  4. Division/sepration of power

The basis of Geographical Federalism in India

Centripetal Forces	Centrifugal Forces
1. The Sub-continental design	1. But the sub-continent has plateau, plain, desert, coastal ring, mountains, etc.
2. Monsoon rhythm. It not only influences the cropping pattern but also sets the cultural rhythm & festivity in India.	2. But the variability in rainfall makes the distinction in the cropping pattern & the output. Thus cultural diversity also grows.
3. Sanskrit as a language commands and is respected among all the languages in India.	India has 22 constitutional languages and thousand of dialects.
4. There is a single racial type called Indian-type or Brown race.	4. But India has 6 major races and it is called "Melting pot of races"
5. Indian Constitution is very power binding force of the country.	5. Division of power, separation of power in states
6. Nationalism has a long history in India. The Magadh empire, Ashoka- the great, Akhbar, marathas and the British Empire. The national movement against British Empire.	6. Regionalism, linguistic division of states, sub-nationalism, communism, etc.

Emergence of New States

• The geographical criteria:
• 1. Physiographic distinction
  2. Ethnic homogeneity/ Cultural basis
  3. History of Demand
  4. Economic Backwardness
  5. The Resource base
  6. Linguistic base
• For the formation of new state, following viability are considered:
• 1. Economic viability
  2. Admistrative viability
  3. Ecological Viability
  4. Political viability
  5. Cultural viability
  6. Linguistic viability

Case Study - Jharkand, Uttrakhand, Chattisgarh

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Social Capital

• Social capital is neither material capital nor human capital. Thus neither refers to natural resources or human resources.
• The concept of social capital developed in USA in the 19th century. It refers to the social interaction & the social intercourse among people. It was developed by L. J. Hanifer and later on explained by Robert D. Putname. It refers to the collective of economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment & cooperation between the individuals and groups. It is based on the principle that social networks have value.
• Hanifer stated that social capital is the means to achieve the material & the tangible substances necessary for our development through goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy, & social intercourse among a group of individual who make up a social unit.
• Social capital is formed by the networking & the social cohesiveness or interaction with people working in various affairs.

Case Study of Italy

• In Italy, Northern & southern region both developed industries, but southern region had lesser growth rate than northern region because it lacked social capital. Here, social capital means awareness & conciousness of being a part of the social unit & demanding growth. Thus the current economic development are also questions of social awareness, interaction & social co-mingling.

Geo-Political Theories

Heartland Theory

• A geopolitical theory which deals with special relationship among various powers & seeks to understand the contemporary geo-politics with reference to history.
• It is a deterministic & predictable model based on Admiral Mahan's Principle that there is historical conflict between the land power and the sea power. However, Maikinder was opposed to the view of Mahan that sea power is more coercive than land power because Maikender based his theory on the medivial history where Mongol's horse power ruled the world.
• In 1904, Maikinder published a book called "Geographical Pivot of History" which has the proposition of Heartland Theory. He divided the world in a 3-tier system.
• 1. Pivot Area 
     • bounded by Ural in the west, Siberia highlands in the east, Central highland in the south and Arctic ice shell in the North. Thus pivot area is a natural fortress, inaccessible & thus invincible. 
     • It has central location to the known world & Mongols could never enter this zone. They invaded the coastal rims.
     • Moreover, the region has enormous natural resources, which is essential for the growth of the a politico-economic power.
  2. The Marginal Crescent
     • It is the coastal rim including Europe, West-Asia, South-Asia & China.
     • Due to easy accessibility, the land has been invaded constantly and their history has many fluctuation and ifs & flows.
     • It symbolise coastal countries as the sea power.
  3. The Outer Crescent
     • It included the new world, the Africa and the South of Sahara.
     • The outer crescent had no role in the world geopolitics. 
• He also developed the idea of World Island. The world islands included Eurasia & Africa. The whole world geopolitics is centered in world island.
• 
• In 1909 he published another article, "Democratic idea & reality" where the theory of the Heartland unrevealed. Heartland was a modified form of Pivot Area. 
• Maikinder was overwhelm by the development of the world politics in the last decade. Bolshevik Revoution in 1917 culminated into emergence of USSR as power centre in Europe. Another event of defeat of Germany also propelled him to believe that the heartland has emerged as the new superpower. And thirdly, the construction of trans-syberian railways & greater control of Russia over the syberian resources encouraged him to go further with his geopolitical theory.
• He presented some sensilating political quotations:
• 1. Geographical Causation of History
     • It means history is product of geographical forces operating in time & space.
     • Pulsation in history is caused by climate.
  2. Geography is a coercive force which determines the evolution of geopolitics.
     • eg. accessibility, resource availability, climate and race of people determines the centralisation of political power.
  3. There is a historical conflict between the land power & sea power
     • Where land power is superior because it has easier access to the coastal countries.
• In 1919 he divided the world into a 3 tier system with certain amendments:
• • Tier-I(The Heartland)
  • • Western boundary is Volga basin.
    • Himalaya & Turkish-Iranian mountains in the south.
  • Tier-II(The Marginal Crescent)
  • • Which included Europe, entire Africa & South-Asia, SW Asia, SE Asia but he kept UK and Japan in the outer Crescent.
  • Tier-III(The Outer Crescent)
  • • It included the the continents of N. America, S. America and Australia.
  
• He gave the famous quotation, "Who commands Eastern Europe, rules the Heartland. Who commands the Heartland, rules the world island. Who commands the world islands, rules the world". Thus, heartland is the core area where economic & political forces will centralise and it will evolve as a superpower. heartland has inaccessibility, natural fortification & enormous resources.
• In 1944 before his death he published another article "Round the world & wining of the peace", which published in the foreign affairs.
• The outcome of the 2nd WW was emergence of USA as superpower. Maikinder was quick to revise his Heartland theory. He suggested that there are two superior power: (a)Heartland and (b)The Midland Basin, which consist of New England region(USA) separated by Atlantic which is not a barrier rather a facilitator of trade & strategic relationship.
• The two units have only geopolitical separation but they are similar race with analogous economic & political aspiration and they jointly tends to establish political hegemony in the world. The physiographic, climatic, racial and historical similarity combines them in a united force.

Application of the Heartland Theory

• Pre-WWII
• 1. Emergence of Russian Federation after Bolsheviks revolution.
  2. The Siberian railways & growing control of Russia over resources.
  3. The defeat of Germany at the hand of Russia during WWII.
• The Cold-War period
• 1. He predicted the two superpower and the eastern Europe became bone of contention.
  2. The Cuban missile crisis and the stalemate situation between the 2 superpower.
  3. 1971 Indo-Pak war, USA sends its ships to the Bay of Bangal and Russia sends its ships to Arabian sea.
• Post Cold-War period
• 1. Russian Fedration was dismental and Russia ceased to be an economic power. But their military capability are still superior & it acts as a strategic pole or power centre.
  2. With formation of Shanghai Corporation, Russia is trying to exert its economic & strategic position.
  3. Formation of BRICS bank.
  4. Annexation of Crimea by Russia.
  5. National Missile Defence(NMD) by USA. It manifest the perceived threat from Russia.

Criticism of Heartland Theory

1. Biased view
   • His view was biased because of imperial British interests were central focus of his theory.
2. Overlooked Heartland’s physical and climatological difficulties
   • Heartland is a region of permanent  problems owing to it’s interior location and extremes of climate. He overlooked Man-nature relation.
3. Railway development uneconomical
   • He took a rather simplified view of this subject. In an arid region with sparsely settled Heartland region, which has limited agricultural and mineral base a railway project would be uneconomical.
4. Era of air travel destroys Heartlands invincibility
   • He failed to see that railway era was drawing to an end and that the era of air travel has already began. Example:- German air raids on the cities of USSR during the World War proved his theory wrong.
5. Miscalculation regarding power potential and area
   • He wrongly equated power potential with sheer geographical area, a factor which made him to inflate the resources and power of the inner Heartland.
6. Old data for pivot area concept
   • His pivot area concept came in 1904. His thesis was based don the data available prior to 1904. At that time Russia occupied barely any important place in the world map of politics. This was an inherent weakness in his thesis.
7. Oversimplification of the land and sea power
   • He oversimplified the complex relationship of history rather in a deterministic fashion s a struggle between land and sea power.
8. Science has made surface transportation configuration of earth insignificant
   • Science and technology development has made a global distribution of land and sea insignificant as ballistic missile with nuclear warheads can be fired from any point of the earth’s surface. Example: Inter-continental ballistic missile.
9. Policy of nuclear deterrence by the Western Bloc to counterbalance heartland
   • A nuclear arsanel in the hands of west will deter USSR inspite of it’s advantages to spread communism throughout by controlling the world unchecked. This was probably why USA dropped 2 atom bombs on Japan. However, an arms race was triggered off by this act between the 2 blocs.

Rimland Theory

• Rimland theory is an antithesis to the heartland theory. However, based on the similar premises, it is a critical view on Maikinder than  independent theory.
• It was represented by Spykman in 1943. The theory says that their is power conflict between Land & sea power. It also accepts the 3-tier division of Maikinder, but rejects the idea that land power is superior to sea power.
• It quoted the European history in the post Columbian era when the Europe virtually ruled the whole world.
• The theory suggest that the heartland is a misery & perennial agony because it is inaccessible, resources are dormant, climatic hazards are too great and terrain is difficult. Moreover, the best of all the resources, the human resource, is absent.
• The Marginal Crescent was termed as the Rimland, symbolising the sea power. The sea power has faster movement & mass transportation. Therefore, it is invincible. And strategically the coastal location, indentation, ports are natural advantage to a country.
• He further said, 2/3rd of the world population live in the Rimland area and it has all the vital resources like petroleum, coal, forest resources and human resource. Thus, Rimland is far superior spatial unit than the heartland.
• The famous quotation, "Who controls the Rimland, rules Eurasia. Who rules Eurasia, controls destinies of the world".

Criticism of Rimland Theory

1. Neither Heartland nor Rimland theory has modern application because they neglects:
   1. Air Power
   2. Ballistic missiles
   3. Nuclear warfare
2. Rimland theory was prominent during the cold war when Russia was trying to extend its hegemony over Rimland countries.
3. The domino theory which suggested the USSR trying to extend its communism in the peripheral parts.
4. Finlandisation, Russia establishing proxy govt. and influencing the policy making in Rimland area.
5. These theories are more of historical analysis and they can't be applied in-to-to.

Cultural Region

• Culture is a dynamic concept which has historic continuity & progression.
• Culture are enriched by the cross fertilisation, and cultures never die while civilization ends.
• Culture can be defined as a set of belief, faith, tradition and our perception to the life & physical surrounding, our economic aspirations, standard of living, innovation & technology.

Cultural Hearth

• Heartland of various cultures.
• It is a historical concept which include cultural phenomena in a historical sense relationg to the imaginative & creative genesis of the man.
• 7 cultural hearths:
• 1. The Nile river valley
  2. The Indus river valley
  3. The Wei-Huang river valley
  4. The Ganga river valley
  5. Mesopotamia
  6. Mesoamerica
  7. West Aftrica

Cultural Core

• It is the centre of culture with an integrated system of learning and behaviour characterising the society and which can't be attributed to the genetic inheritance.

Cultural Region

• These are the area that contains dominant cultural elements. Though not everyone in the cultural region has the same cultural traits, they are often influenced by it in some way.
• These are the larger area with dominance of a defined culture which includes language, S&T, value system, ideology, social structure, religion, etc.

Cultural Realm

• It is the largest possible area under the influence of a culture.

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Cultural Region of the World

1. Occidental Culture
   1. Anglo American
   2. Latin American
   3. Australian
   4. European
2. African Culture
   1. Meso African Culture
3. Oriental Culture
   1. Islamic culture
   2. Hindu Culture/Indian Culture
4. South East Asian Culture

Cultural Region of India

1. West Himalayan Culture
   1. Ladhaki Buddhist Culture
   2. Kashmiri Culture
   3. Kinnori Culture
2. Eastern Himalayan Cultural
   1. Sikkim, Arunanchal(Buddhist)
   2. Great Naga Culture
   3. Other ethnic tribal cultural
3. The Aryan Culture
   1. The eastern Hindi culture
   2. Western Hindi Culture
4. The Dravidian Culture
   1. Tamil
   2. Telgu
   3. Kannad
   4. Malayam

Tribes

• Tribes are defined as the primitive ethnic people which lives in natural habitat or ecological or near ecological setups where climatic hazards & difficult terrain pour great challenge to life.
• Tribes have following characterstics:
• 1. Cantripital society
  2. Strong ethnic conciousness
  3. Natural habitat
  4. Purity of race
  5. Local or village God
  6. Nature worship(also called Animistic or Animism)
  7. Backwardness

Major Tribes In India

1. Gond
2. Oraon
3. Bhil
4. Santhal
5. Meena
6. Munda tribe
7. Khond tribe

Tribal Problems

• Social Problem
• Environmental Problem
• Economical Problem

Social Well being

• Social well being is the subjective analysis of social quality of life. It includes:
• • High living standard
  • Education & skill development
  • Social security
  • Good living conditions
  • Environmental protection
  • Opportunity to express their emotion, sentiments, cultural trades, etc.
  • Social capital
• Other indicators:
• • Life expectancy 
  • Positive sex ratio
  • low dependency ratio
  • Higher degree of employment
• Social well being can be ensured in:
• • Democratic polity
  • Secular state
  • Conferment of Fundamental rights & natural rights

Migration

• Migration refers to the movement by people or communities from one place to another with the intention of settling in the new location.

Laws of migration by E. G. Ravenstein(in 1890s)

1. Most migrants move only short distance.
2. Economic factors are the main cause of migration.
3. Females are more migratory than males.
4. There is a process of absorption, whereby people immediately surrounding a rapidly growing town moves into it and the gaps they leave are filled by migrants from more distance area, and so on until the attractive forces[pull factors] are spent. There is a process of dispersion, which is the inverse of absorption.
5. Each migratory flow produces a compensatory counter flow.
6. Long distance migration go to one of the great centre of commerce & industry.
7. Natives of the towns are less migratory than those of rural area.

Push-Pull theory on Migration

• Push factors initiate migration & refers to the adverse condition which disperse population, such factors originate at the source region. They are:
• • Economic Factors
  • Demographic factors
  • Social factors
  • Environmental factors
  • Cultural factors
  • Political factors
  • Dynamic factors
• Pull factors refers to the better conditions which attract population, such factors exists in the destination.

Lee's Model

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Mobility Transition Model by Zelinsky

• This model is the temporal analysis of migration behaviour. 
• It suggested that the various stages of the economic growth influences the nature and magnitude of migration.

     Stage I(Pre-Transition Society)

• • Agricultural Society
  • Low productivity, Surplus is absent
  • Religious & stagnant society
  • Pre-Newtonian society
  • Migration is only limited to short distance & socio cultural displacement(Rural to Rural).

     Stage II(Early Transition Society)

• • Industrial revolution & economic growth force huge rural migration to urban area because industries demand labour & the wage rates are higher than the rural area.
  • Such migrations are always economic migrations(Rural to Urban).

     Stage III(Late Transition Society)

• • The growth of urban centre, industrial & commercial towns and service sectors results in continued human displacement from rural to urban & from small urban centre to large urban centre to larger urban centre(Urban to Urban).

     Stage IV(Advance Society)

• • When economic development trickles down the lower runs of the society & the rural areas.
  • Then, migrations slows down and there is an inverse migration from urban centres to rural areas for recreational purposes.

     Stage V(Futuristic Society)

• • High economic development, consumption, consumerism, high per capita income & wage rates characterise this stage.
  • Nearly all migration will be inter-urban.

Other Models

• According to Zipf's Inverse Distance Law, the volume of migration is inversely proportional to the distant travelled by migrants. This is also called the Distance Decay Law.
• A no. of studies has not only examined the relationship between volume of migration & the distance but has also considered the influence of opportunities.
• In 1940, Stouffer proposed his theory of Intervening Opportunities, which says migration is directly proportional to the no. of opportunities at the distance and inversely proportional to the the no. of intervening opportunities.

Types of Migration

1. International Migrations
   • On spatial basis
   1. 1. Inter-continental
      2. Trans-Oceanic
   • On temporal basis
   • 1. Historical Migration(before 1680)
        • The migration of Magadh, which was military expansion of the empire into central asia, west asia, south-east asia.
        • Migration of Chola's in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, etc.
     2. Slave Migration(1680-1833)
        • In Virginia cargo, the African slaves were taken to Carrabian & US to work in railways, mining, etc.
        • Such migration had 50% mortality.
        • Indian migration during this period were limited from Chennai, Kochi, Goa, Calicut, etc.
     3. Indentured Labour Migration(1833-1905)
        • Indentured labour law replaced the Slaves Act.
        • Slaves law was abolished in 1833 and Indentured Labour law enacted, but it was hardly any different from the slave act because it created the bonded labours.
        • Most of the migrants were from India were from Bhojpur & Haryana because people from bhojpur had expertise in sugarcane cultivation.
     4. Recent Migration(1905- present)
        • Brain drain
        • Selected migration of professional.
        • the main cause of migration is economic factors
2. National Migration
   • Inter-State migration
   • • Assam - from Bangladesh, Santhal, Gorkhas, etc.
     • West Bengal - from Bihar, Odisha, North-East, etc.
     • Maharashtra - from the whole county, mainly to Mumbai
     • Tamil Nadu - from Kerala, AP, etc
     • Punjab - from Bihar, UP, MP, etc.
   • Regional Migration
   • 1. Rural to rural
        • 2/3rd of migrations are rural to rural. 
        • It is because of marriages, agricultural labourers, social tension, construction workers, etc.
        • Rural to rural migration of female migrants are primarily due to prevalence of patriarchal residence after migration.
     2. Rural to Urban
        • Around 17% of migration.
        • For higher wage rate, higher standard of living, health services, educational services, etc.
     3. Urban to Urban
        • Around 10% of migration.
        • From small centre to large urban centre for better standard of living.
     4. Urban to rural
        • Also called "Push-back migration" or "Inverse migration".
        • Around 6% of migration
        1. Mainly retired people for nostalgia & recreational purposes.

Optimum Poulation

• Optimum population refers to the size of a population that produces the best results according to chosen end targets. These end targets could be largest per capita income, log term sustainability, efficient operation of democracy, preservation of personal freedom and preservation of biodiversity.
• According to W. C. Robinson, as the beauty of female has various perspective, the concept of optimum population has perspective difference among scholars. 
• According to J. Stamp, optimum population is one where carrying capacity of the land is equal to the demand of population.
• The optimum population is the one which leads to the highest quality of life where quality of life means adequate amount of food, energy, air of high quality. Thus this concept is fundamentally economic in nature. 
• It is also defined as the condition where potentiality of human creativity can be realised. In other words, Optimum population is the size which permits the highest per capita output & the one where the marginal productivity still exceeds the average productivity, and where the rate of growth to the total production is highest. 
• In simple terms, it is condition where neither resources are dormant nor over burden nor over exploited. A population which can be sustained without jeopardising the future.

Over-Population

• It is when the population size can't be served by the available resources. It is a deviation from the equilibrium stage or optimum population.
• There are two types of over population:
• 1. Absolute
     • Where living standards remains low even after attainment of absolute development of resources.
     • Eg. Bangladesh
  2. Relative
     • where the present level of production is inadiquate but greater production is feasible.
     • eg. India
• Over population means low quality of life, malnutrition, food crisis, lack of social security, etc.

Under-population

• Under population is usually defined as a state in which a country's population has declined too much to support the current economic system.
• Thus the term has nothing to do with the biological aspect of carrying capacity, but is an economic term to imply that the transfer payment schemes of some developed countries might fail once the population decline to a certain point.

Problems in Under-Population

1. Imbalance between town & country(village) is a major problem
2. Shortage of skilled labour

Population Problems

• "Population is not a problem by itself but no problem can't be solved without controlling it" - J. L. Nehru
• "Poverty breads population" - Indra Gandhi; "Development is the best contraceptive" - Karan Singh
• Population is burdensome if it is unskilled but if educated, trained & skillful, it becomes best of resources.
• Population is a problem if they are not employed in any economic sector or unproductive population is a problem.
• According to Ackerman, population problem must be analysed with respect to 3 variables.
• 1. Natural Resources
  2. Technology
  3. Population Size
• He divided 5 types of population resources ratio:

• 	Resources	Population	Technology
  US type	high	optimum	high
  Europe type	Low	high	high
  Brazilian type	high	low	low
  Egyptian type	low	high	low
  Arctic type	low	low	low

Population Problem of Developed Countries

1. High dependency ratio
2. Aging population
3. Low work force
4. Rural depopulation
5. Isolation
6. Nuclearisation of family
7. Low or negative population growth rate
8. The no. of old age females surpasses the male

Population problem for developing countries

1. Rapid growth of population
2. unemployment & underemployment
3. Poor standard of living & malnutrition
4. mismanagement of agriculture resources
5. Slow growth of Industrial sector
6. Orthodoxy

Population Growth & Population Distribution

• Population growth is a temporal concept while Population Distribution is a spatial concept.
• Population growth refers to the population change by birth rate, death rate & migration.It is measured by annual exponantial growth rate, decadal growth rate, etc.
• Population distribution means the concentration of population cluster over space. Population distribution is measured by population density.

Population Growth in the World

     Stage I(Agricultural revolution phase) - 10000 BC to 1779

• Population growth was very slow because birth rate & death rate both were high.
• Malnutrition, famine, wars, etc.
• The total population is estimated by Durrand was 5 million during 8000 BC which became 500 million in 1560 & by 1779 it was 750 million.

     Stage II(Industrial revolution phase) - 1779 to 1930

• In 1850, population became 1 billion. Thus in 200 years the population doubled itself due to control over resources & development in medical  science, control over famine, malnutrition, etc.

     Stage III(Scientific Revolution phase) - 1930 to 1975

• The total population became 2 billion in 1930 and 4 billion in 1975. Thus it took 45 years to double the population.
• The explosive increase was witnessed in the 3rd world countries. After Independence, death rate was controlled by imported medicine & the green revolution mitigated the food crisis.
• In 1950, population was 2.5 billion. After 1950, the 1.5 billion population was added by the counties like India, China, west asia,South east Asia, etc.

     Stage IV(Technological Phase) - 1975 to Present

• Total population raised to 6 billion in 2001 & presently it is more than 7 billion. By 2025, it is projected to be 8 billion.
• Population explosion has continued in the developing countries.

Population Distribution of the World

1. High Density Region(>200)
   1. Primary Concentration(>750): Bangladesh, Singapore, etc.
   2. Secondary Concentration(>500): South east china, India, etc.
   3. Tertiary concentration(>200): Java, Malaysia, India, etc.
2. Medium Density Region(50-200)
3. Low Density Region(10-50)
4. Very Low density Region(<10)

Population Distribution on the basis of habitat

• The world can be divided into Ecumene which means human habitat. It is divided into:
• 1. Intensive ecumene: like metropolitan city, delta, flood basin, etc.
  2. Extensive ecumene: mainly rural area, sub-humid region, forest area, etc.
  3. Exploitation ecumene: Cumbering area, forestry area, mining area, etc.
  4. Sporadic ecumene: Semi-arid tracks, tribal region, climatically hazardous region, etc.
  5. Non-ecumene: Land which is unfit for human habitation. eg. desert.

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Population growth in India

     Stage I(High Stationary Phase) - 1881 to 1921

• In 1901, the population growth rate was 0.1 average annual exponential while decadal growth rate was 5.1 which became 5.7 in 1911. But in 1921 it was recorded -0.3 which means the total  population reduced to 251 million from 252 million because of epidemics famine & world war.
• 1921 is considered the great demographic divide because since then the population of India has been exponentially rising.

     Stage II(Early Expanding Phase) - 1921 to 1951

• In 1951, population became 36 crore despite the partition of India.
• The reason for population growth was control over famine & better nutrition.

     Stage III(Explosive Growth Phase) - 1951 to 1981

• In 1951, India wittnessed the highest population growth rate 24.8 & in 1971 24.7. 
• UP had double explosion & it experienced highest decadal growth rate during 1971-81. It was more due to coercive population policy of forced sterilization.

     Stage IV(Late Expanding Phase) - 1981 to Present

• The total population is on rise because of the demographic momentum & the higher replacement level.
• In 1991, decadal growth rate was 23.8. In 2001 = 21.3 and in 2011 = 17.64.
• The reason for decline is increase in education & awareness of family planning.
• The southern states have reached the replacement level. The higher growth rate is recorded in the gangatic plains.

Population Distribution in India

1. Very High population concentration(>750)
2. High Population concentration(500-750)
3. Medium population concentration(250-500)
4. Low population concentration(100-250)
5. Very Low population concentration(<100)

Demographic Transition Theory

• It was proposed by W.S. Thompson & Frank W. Notestein.
• It is a non-spatial temporal model based on the socio-economic transformation & the changing demographic scenario in a country.
• It co-relates growth of population with the changing technology, socio-economic upliftment & consumerism.
• It is deterministic & predictive model, which presents a sequential change in country's demography with economic progression.

Basic Premises 

1. The natural growth rate increases because of the fall in death rate. Death rate suddenly decreases while birth rate has gradual decline.
2. Economic progress in the society comes with growth of science, demography, control over social evil, malnutrition, famine, etc.
3. High consumerism & higher income is inversely co-related with fertility rate.

The Stages of Demographic Transition

     Stage I(High Stationary Phase)

• Birth rate more than 35 pre 1000 & death rate more than 35 per 1000. Thus population remains stationary. 
• It is reflective of primitive society.
• Higher death rate is due to malnutrition, famine, etc.

     Satge II(Early Expanding Phase)

• Birth rate remains above 35 pre 1000 but the death rate decreases to 20 per 1000. the population growth rate increases.
• The end of this stage is marked by population explosion where the natural growth rate is maximum.
• This stage is similar to industrial revolution stage with the control over resources, development of medical sciences, etc.

     Stage III(Late Expanding Phase)

• The Birth rate also declines up to 20 per 1000 but the death rate further declines to 10. Thus the population expansion continues however at a declining rate.
• Scientific revolution & increased per capita income, better control over health hazards, infant mortality, mother mortality, etc.

     Stage IV(Low Stationary Phase)

• Both birth rate & death rate are less then 10. Thus population growth stagnates & consumerism grows in the society.
• Technological developmental, nuclearisation of family, democratic ideals, liberty, individual freedom in the society.

     Stage V(Declining Phase)

• After 1970s in the highly developed economy the firtility has greatly declined and the countries are witnesssing negative population growth rate. eg. Germany, Japan, Russia.

Criticism of Demographic Transition Theory

1. Too deterministic & predictive.
2. Some of the countries have consumerism of stage IV but birth rate of stage II. eg. West Asian countries.
3. Population is not necessarily govern by the economic processes but also by cultural factors.
4. Some of the Countries has economic activities of stage I & population of stage IV. eg. Australia, New-Zealand, Chile & Argentina.
5. The model is not applicable to Africa & Asia and particularly India because India is in demographic trap between stage II & III.
6. The theory has not considered migration as a mechanism of population growth rate.
7. The model does not consider demographic momentum as a factor of population increase.

Demographic Momentum means the no. of people in fertility age. Even though the fertility rate declines,the demographic momentum can further increase population. eg. India has 40% of its population below 14 years & 3/4th of its population in reproductive age.(i.e. the no. of females between 14 to 45 creates demographic momentum)